153 lines
6.2 KiB
Markdown
153 lines
6.2 KiB
Markdown
# 11. Aggression
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> PSYG2504 Social Psychology
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## 11.0 Definition of Aggression
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*Aggression is defined as intentional behavior aimed at causing either physical or psychological pain.*
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Aggression is a behavior and should be distinguished from feelings of anger.
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- Hostile aggression: stemming from feelings of anger with the goal of inflicting pain or injury
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- Instrumental aggression: a means to achieve some goal other than causing pain
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## 11.1 Roots of Aggression
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- **Biology** plays a role in human aggression.
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People injected testosterone become more aggressive (Moyer, 1983)
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reducing ability to control impulses.
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- **Family environment** also greatly influences the expression of aggression (Miles & Carey, 1997).
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### 11.1.1 Social-cognitive learning theory
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- A main mechanism that determines aggression is past learning (Miles & Carey, 1997)
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- As with other learned behaviors, aggression is influenced by both imitation and reinforcement
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### 11.1.2 Freud
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*Freud suggested that we have an instinct (thanatos) to aggress.*
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Evolutionary psychologists argue that physical aggression is genetically programmed into men:
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To establish dominance over other males and secure the highest possible status.
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Aggress out of sexual jealousy to ensure that their mate is not having sex with other men, thereby ensuring their own paternity (Buss, 2004, 2005)
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## 11.2 Social Determinants of Aggression
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### 11.2.1 Provocation (挑衅)
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*Actions by others that tend to trigger aggression in the recipient, often because they are perceived as stemming from malicious intent.*
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Can be verbal or physical attack.
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An “eye for an eye” reaction.
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We tend to reciprocate, especially if we are certain that the other person meant to harm us.
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### 11.2.2 Frustration (挫折)
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*Anything that block the goal attainment.*
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Berkowitz (1989, 1993) proposed a revised version:
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- Frustration is an unpleasant experience.
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- The experience leads to negative feelings.
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- The negative feelings lead to aggressive behavior.
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*Frustration only produces anger or annoyance and a readiness to aggress if other things about the situation are conducive to aggressive behavior.*
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Includes family conflicts, job and money problems.
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Dollard et al. (1939) proposed the famous frustration-aggression hypothesis
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The theory that frustration triggers a readiness to aggress.
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Now we know aggression is definitely NOT an automatic response to frustration.
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### 11.2.3 Displaced Aggression
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*When aggressive feelings cannot be expressed against the cause of the anger, we may engage in displaced aggression against a substitute target (Dollard et al., 1939).*
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The more similar a target is to the original source, the stronger the aggressive impulse, but also the greater the anxiety that is felt about aggressing.
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Displaced aggression is most likely to be directed towards targets that are weaker & less dangerous.
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### 11.2.4 Norms
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*Social Norms are crucial in determining what aggressive habits are learned.*
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e.g. norms for children of two sexes.
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e.g. wars, sports.
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### 11.2.5 Media
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*Various kinds of evidence are able to link media violence to aggressive behavior.*
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1. **Modeling **
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2. **Desensitization effect**
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As a result of exposure to large amounts of violent content in TV programs, films, games, individuals become less sensitive to violence and its consequences (Anderson et al., 2003)
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3. **Priming **
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Hostile thoughts come to mind more readily, and this in turn, can increase the likelihood that a person will engage in overt aggression (Anderson, 1997)
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## 11.3 Cognitive Determinants of Aggression
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### 11.3.1 Schema
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*Reinforcement, imitation, and assumptions about others’ motives may all combine to produce a schema for aggression.*
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When the schemas for aggression combine with the biological processes (e.g. physiological arousal), there is a high likelihood for aggressive behavior.
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Media may contribute to the development and maintenance of these schemas (Huesmann, Moise, & Podolski, 1997)
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e.g. scripts for aggression
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### 11.3.2 Attribution
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For an attack or frustration to produce anger and aggression, it must be perceived as intended to harm.
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Attributions of controllability affect this assessment.
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Imagine someone steps on your heel and when you look back you see…
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## 11.4 Situational Determinants of Aggression
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### 11.4.1 Heat
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*Psychologists now believe that heat does increase aggression, but only up to a point (Bell, 1980; Rule & others, 1987). *
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When people get hot, they become irritable and may be more likely to lash out at others (especially when they have been provoked).
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*Beyond a certain level, aggression may actually decline as temperatures rise.*
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People may become so uncomfortable and fatigued that they are actually less likely to engage in overt aggression.
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## 11.5 Reducing Aggressive Behavior
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### 11.5.1 Catharsis
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*Catharsis refers to Freud’s idea that the release of anger would reduce subsequent aggression.*
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- Sports and shouting can reduce emotional arousal stemming from frustration (Zillmann, 1979).
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- Watching violent media cannot (Geen, 1998).
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- Attacking inanimate objects cannot (Bushman et al., 1999).
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- Playing violent video games increases aggressive thoughts and behaviors (Anderson & Dill, 2000).
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### 11.5.2 Punishment
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Fear of punishment reduces aggression only when the punishment is:
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- Prompt – follow the aggressive behavior as soon as possible.
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- Certain / Consistent – the probability that it will follow aggression must be very high
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- Strong – strong enough to be highly unpleasant to the recipients
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- Justified / Deserved
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Problems
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- Suppress, not remove
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- Generate anger and aggression (Sears et al., 1957)
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- Spark counter-aggression or revenge
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### 11.5.3 Behavior
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- **Exposure to non-aggressive models **
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“Unlearn” aggressive behavior.
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- **Training in social skills/anger management **
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Some aggressive people don’t know how to respond to provocations from others.
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- **Incompatible responses **
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If individuals are exposed to events or stimuli that cause them to experience affective states incompatible with anger or aggression, these reactions are reduced.
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Pain cues – concerning the victims’ reactions.
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- **Distraction**
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Distract ourselves to something else.
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Less likely to feed aggressive behavior, but not always work (Bushman, 2002). |