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+# Historical and Contemporary Views of Abnormal Behavior
+
+## Historical Views of Abnormal Behavior
+
+### Demonology, Gods, and Magic
+
+1. Abnormal behavior attributed to demonic possession
+  1. Differentiated good vs. bad spirits based on the individual’s symptoms
+  2. Religious significance of possession
+2. Primary treatment for demonic possession was exorcism
+    a. Various techniques including magic, prayer, incantation,
+    noisemaking, and use of horrible-tasting concoctions
+
+### Hippocrates (460-377 B.C) Early Medical Concepts from Greek
+
+- Proposing that mental disorders had natural
+causes
+- Categorizing disorders as mania, melancholia,
+or phrenitis
+- Associating dreams and personality
+
+### Early Philosophical Conceptions of Consciousness
+
+#### Plato (429-347 B.C.)
+
+- Viewed psychological phenomena as responses of the
+  whole organism
+- In The Republic, he emphasized individual differences and
+  sociocultural influences
+- Discussed hospital care
+- Believed that mental disorders were in part divinely
+  caused
+
+#### Aristotle (384-322 B.C.)
+
+- Wrote lasting description of consciousness
+- “Thinking” as directed would eliminate pain,
+  attain pleasure
+
+### Later Greek and Roman Thought
+
+- **Egyptian:** proposed wide range of therapeutic measures like dieting, massage, hydrotherapy, gymnastics and education.
+- **Greek:** proposed disease based on flow of atoms through the pores in the body.
+  Galen from Greek (130-200) provided anatomy of nervous system.
+- **Roman:** medicine focused on comfort.
+
+### Early Views of Mental Disorders in China
+
+- One of earliest foci on mental disorders (2674 B.C.)
+- Emphasis on natural causes
+- Chung Ching: “Hippocrates of China”
+- Experienced brief “Dark Ages” that blamed supernatural causes (late 200-900 A.D.)
+- Incorporation of ideas from Western psychiatry in last 50 years
+
+### Views of Abnormality During the Middle Ages
+
+- **Middle East:** had scientific approach.
+- **Europe:** was plagued with mass madness.
+- Relating the mental illness with witchcraft, and treatment included exorcism
+
+## Toward Humanitarian Approaches
+
+### The Resurgence of Scientific Questioning in Europe
+
+**Renaissance:**
+
+- Led to resurgence of scientific questioning in
+  Europe
+- Part of humanism movement
+
+### The Establishment of Early Asylums
+
+- First established in Sixteenth Century
+- “Madhouses”“Bedlam” storage places for the insane
+- Found throughout Europe; parts of U.S.
+- Aggressive treatment to restore “physical balance in body and brain”
+
+### Humanitarian Reform
+
+- France:
+  - Philippe Pinel (1745-1826)
+  - unchained patients, placed them in sunny rooms and treated     them with exercise and kindness
+- England:
+  - William Tuke, Quakers (1732-1822)
+  - established the York Retreat, a country house for the mentally ill. He treated with kindness and acceptance
+- America:
+  - Benjamin Rush (1745-1813): emphasized spiritual and moral development
+  - Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790): proposed using electricity to treat melancholia
+  - Dorothy Dix (1802-1887): suitable hospitals were built
+  
+
+#### The military’s role in mental health treatment:
+
+- American Civil War (1861-1865)
+  - First mental health facility opened
+- Germany (1870-1914)
+  - Developed program of military psychiatry following FrancoPrussian War
+  - Contributed to field of abnormal psychology
+
+### Nineteenth-Century Views of the Causes and Treatment of Mental Disorders
+
+**Alienists (psychiatrists):**
+
+- Gained control of asylums
+- Emotional problems (“shattered nerves”) were caused by the   expenditure of energy or by the depletion of bodily energies as a   result of excesses in living
+
+### Changing Attitudes Toward Mental Health in the Early Twentieth Century
+
+**Clifford Beers (1876-1943):**
+
+- Described own mental collapse in A Mind That Found Itself in 1908
+- Straitjacket was still widely used
+- Began campaign for reform
+
+### Mental Hospital Care in the Twentieth Century
+
+- 1940
+  - Most mental hospitals inhumane and ineffective
+- 1946
+    - Mary Jane Ward published The Snake Pit
+    - National Institutes of Mental Health
+    - Hill–Burton Act (funded community mental health hospitals)
+- 1963
+    - Community Health Services Act (develop outpatient psychiatric clinics, community consultations, and rehab programs)
+
+
+#### Deinstitutionalization Movement
+
+- Large numbers of mental hospital closures and shift to community-based residences
+- Global movement: Asia, Europe, U.S.
+- Considered more humane and cost effective
+- Created problems for both patients and society as a whole
+
+
+## The Emergence of Contemporary Views of Abnormal Behavior
+
+### The Emergence of Contemporary Views of Abnormal Behavior
+
+**Recent changes:**
+
+1. Biological discoveries
+2. Development of mental disorders classification
+      system
+3. Emergence of psychological causation views
+4. Experimental psychological research developments
+
+### Biological Discoveries
+
+1. Biological and anatomical factors recognized as underlying both physical and mental disorders
+2. Cure for general paresis (syphilis of the brain)
+   - Raised hopes that organic bases would be found for many other mental disorders
+3. Mental disorders an illness based on brain pathology
+   - Downside: removal of body parts, lobotomies
+
+### The Development of a Classification System
+
+**Kraepelin:**
+
+- Compendium der Psychiatrie (1883): forerunner to DSM
+- Specific types of mental disorders identified
+
+### Emergence of psychological causation views
+
+#### Mesmerism:
+
+- Diseases treated by “animal magnetism”
+- Source of heated discussion in early nineteenth century
+
+#### Nancy School
+- Hypnotism and hysteria are related and due to suggestion
+- Hysteria, a form of self-hypnosis, could be caused and removed by hypnosis
+
+**Nancy School–Charcot debate**
+
+- Are mental disorders caused by biological or psychological factors?
+
+#### Sigmund Freud (1856–1939)
+
+- First major steps toward understanding psychological factors in
+  mental disorders
+- Psychoanalytic perspective:
+- Catharsis (repressed emotions.)
+  - The unconscious
+  - Free association
+  - Dream analysis
+  - Emphasizes inner dynamics of unconscious motives
+
+### Experimental psychological research developments
+- **Wilhelm Wundt:** First experimental psychological laboratory
+- **J. McKeen Cattell:** Wundt’s methods to U.S.
+- **Lightner Witmer:** First American psychological clinic
+
+#### Behavioral perspective:
+
+Role of learning in humanbehavior.
+
+- Classical Conditioning
+  - Neutral stimulus repeatedly paired with unconditioned stimulus; naturally elicits an unconditioned behavior
+  - Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson
+-  Operant Conditioning
+  - E. L. Thorndike, B. F. Skinner

PSYG2500 Abnormal Psychology/1.md

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+# Introduction to Abnormal Psychology
+
+### Course Objectives:
+
+This course aims at providing students with a survey of
+behavioral disorders in terms of the biological,
+psychological, and sociocultural constellation of the
+person.  
+While several orientations to the study of psychological
+disorders will be discussed, the primary emphasis will
+be put on the scientific study of these disorders from an
+empirical perspective
+
+### Course Intended Learning Outcomes:
+
+Describe and explain the symptomatology, etiology and
+therapy of various disorders introduced in the course
+using a biopsychosocial perspective;  
+Apply their understanding of symptomatology and
+etiology and make a diagnosis based on presenting
+symptoms and suggest evidence-based treatments; and
+Explore and analyze the emotional, physical, and
+medical, implications of psychopathologies.  
+Describe and explain the symptomatology, etiology and
+therapy of various disorders introduced in the course
+using a biopsychosocial perspective;  
+Apply their understanding of symptomatology and
+etiology and make a diagnosis based on presenting
+symptoms and suggest evidence-based treatments; and
+Explore and analyze the emotional, physical, and
+medical, implications of psychopathologies.
+
+## What Do We Mean By Abnormality?
+
+### Indicators of Abnormality
+
+- Subjective Distress
+- Maladaptiveness
+- Statistical Deviancy
+- Violation of the Standards of Society
+- Social Discomfort
+- Irrationality and Unpredictability
+- Dangerousness
+
+### Mental Disorder
+
+- Associated with distress or disability.
+- Biological, psychological, or developmental dysfunction in individual.
+- Clinically significant disturbance in behavior, emotional regulation,
+  or cognitive function.
+
+## Classification and Diagnosis
+
+### Advantages of Classification Systems
+
+- Provide nomenclature and common language
+- Allow information structuring
+- Facilitate research
+- Establish the range of problems to address
+
+### Disadvantages of Classification
+
+- Loss of individual’s information
+- Stigma and stereotyping associated with diagnosis
+- Self-concept impacted by diagnostic labeling
+
+### Is there Any Way for US To Reduce Prejudicial Attitudes Toward People Who Are
+Mentally ill?
+
+*Arthur and Colleagues (2010)*
+
+- Negative reactions are widespread global phenomena
+- Understanding of neurobiological basis does not lessen
+  stigma
+- Actual contact with individuals does lessen stigma
+
+## Culture and Abnormality
+
+- Presentation of disorders found worldwide
+- Certain forms of highly culture-specific psychopathology
+
+## How Common Are Mental Disorders?
+
+Significant question for many reasons:   
+Planning, establishing, and funding mental health services for specific disorders;   
+Providing clues to causes of mental disorders.
+
+### Epidemiology
+
+**Epidemiology:** Study of distribution of diseases, disorders, or health-related
+behaviors in a given population.
+
+**Prevalence:** Number of active cases in population during any given period of
+time. Different types of prevalence estimates (point, 1-year, lifetime).
+
+**Incidence:** Number of new cases in population over given period of time. Incidence figures are typically lower than prevalence figures
+
+### Treatment
+
+- Not all people receive treatment
+- Vast majority of treatment is done on outpatient basis
+- Inpatient hospitalization typically in psychiatric units
+
+### Mental Health Professionals
+
+#### Diagnosis and assessment involves participants who:
+
+- Play differing roles in the process
+- Gather comprehensive evaluation patient data
+
+#### Related Jobs including:
+
+- Clinical Psychologist
+- Educational Psychologist
+- Counseling Psychologist
+- School Psychologist
+- Psychiatrist
+- Clinical Social Worker
+- Psychiatric Nurse
+- Occupational Therapist
+- Pastoral Counselor
+
+## Research Approaches in Abnormal Psychology
+
+### Benefits of Research
+• Learn about a disorder’s symptoms, prevalence,
+duration (acute, chronic), and accompanying problems
+• Understand etiology and nature of disorder
+• Discover how to provide the best patient care
+
+## Sources of Information
+
+**Case studies: ** 
+Specific individual observed and described in detail.
+Subject to bias of author of case study.
+
+**Self-report data:**  
+Participants asked to provide information about themselves.
+Interviews.
+
+**Observational approaches:**  
+Collecting information without asking participants directly for it.
+Outward behavior can be observed directly.