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Social Psychology

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- Fixed some of the tittle and course name.
- Fixed index.
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PSYG2504 Social Psychology/01.md
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What is social psychology: What is social psychology:
The **scientific** study of the way in which people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the real or imagined presence of other people. The **scientific** study of the way in which people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the real or imagined presence of other people.
## Social Psychology focuses on the behavior of individuals ## 1.1 Social Psychology focuses on the behavior of individuals
Four core values to be scientific: Four core values to be scientific:
@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ Four core values to be scientific:
- Skepticism – accept findings as accurate after verifying repeatedly - Skepticism – accept findings as accurate after verifying repeatedly
- Open-mindedness – to change the viewpoints when evidence shows the inaccuracy of the viewpoints - Open-mindedness – to change the viewpoints when evidence shows the inaccuracy of the viewpoints
## Social Psychology seeks to understand the causes of social behavior and thought ## 1.2 Social Psychology seeks to understand the causes of social behavior and thought
We are not isolated from social and cultural influences. We are not isolated from social and cultural influences.
@ -22,9 +22,9 @@ To understand the factors that shape the actions and thoughts of individuals in
E.g. love, violence, helping… E.g. love, violence, helping…
## Social Psychology seeks to understand the causes of social behavior and thought ## 1.3 Social Psychology seeks to understand the causes of social behavior and thought
### The actions and characteristics of other people ### 1.3.1 The actions and characteristics of other people
**Our emotions, thoughts and behavior are affected by others.** **Our emotions, thoughts and behavior are affected by others.**
@ -32,7 +32,7 @@ When others are watching us (e.g. an attractive person looked at you at the cant
Others’ physical characteristics (e.g. tall/short; fat/slim; young/old; attractive/less attractive…) Others’ physical characteristics (e.g. tall/short; fat/slim; young/old; attractive/less attractive…)
### Cognitive processes ### 1.3.2 Cognitive processes
**Engage in social cognition – to think about other persons.** **Engage in social cognition – to think about other persons.**
@ -41,26 +41,26 @@ Others’ physical characteristics (e.g. tall/short; fat/slim; young/old; attrac
e.g. You are going to have lunch with your friend and she is late for an hour, how will you react when she says… e.g. You are going to have lunch with your friend and she is late for an hour, how will you react when she says…
She has totally forgotten? She had diarrhoea? She has totally forgotten? She had diarrhoea?
### Environmental variables ### 1.3.3 Environmental variables
**The physical environment influences our feelings, thoughts and behaviors.** **The physical environment influences our feelings, thoughts and behaviors.**
E.g. Do people become more aggressive and irritable when the weather is hot? Does exposure to a pleasant smell in the air make people happier? E.g. Do people become more aggressive and irritable when the weather is hot? Does exposure to a pleasant smell in the air make people happier?
### Biological factors ### 1.3.4 Biological factors
**Comes from the Evolutionary Psychology – we now possess a large number of evolved psychological mechanisms that help us to deal with important problems relating to survival.** **Comes from the Evolutionary Psychology – we now possess a large number of evolved psychological mechanisms that help us to deal with important problems relating to survival.**
E.g. attractiveness (women rate sense of humor very high on the list of desirable characteristics in potential romantic partners) E.g. attractiveness (women rate sense of humor very high on the list of desirable characteristics in potential romantic partners)
= Signal high intelligence, more attractive, interest in forming new relationships = Signal high intelligence, more attractive, interest in forming new relationships
## Social Psychology aims to search for basic principles under the ever-changing social world ## 1.4 Social Psychology aims to search for basic principles under the ever-changing social world
- Develop basic principles that are accurate regardless of when and where they applied or tested. - Develop basic principles that are accurate regardless of when and where they applied or tested.
- Social psychologists also recognize that cultures differ greatly and the social work keeps on changing (e.g. independence or interdependence) - Social psychologists also recognize that cultures differ greatly and the social work keeps on changing (e.g. independence or interdependence)
- E.g. Would the determinants of attraction change after the advancement of technology, e.g. online dating? Social media? - E.g. Would the determinants of attraction change after the advancement of technology, e.g. online dating? Social media?
### Research as a route to increase knowledge ### 1.4.1 Research as a route to increase knowledge
#### Systematic observation #### Systematic observation
@ -100,7 +100,7 @@ Researchers vary the independent variable (e.g., the number of bystanders people
- Internal validity – Making sure that nothing besides the independent variable can affect the dependent variable - Internal validity – Making sure that nothing besides the independent variable can affect the dependent variable
- External validity – The extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to other situations and to other people - External validity – The extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to other situations and to other people
### Research vs. human rights ### 1.4.2 Research vs. human rights
#### Informed consent #### Informed consent

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PSYG2504 Social Psychology/02.md
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# Social perception # 2. Social perception
> PSYG 2504 Social Psychology > PSYG 2504 Social Psychology
*The study of how we form impressions of and make inferences about other people.* *The study of how we form impressions of and make inferences about other people.*
## Nonverbal communication ## 2.1 Nonverbal communication
- The way in which people communicate, intentionally or unintentionally, without words, including via facial expressions, tone of voice, gestures, body position, movement, touch and gaze. - The way in which people communicate, intentionally or unintentionally, without words, including via facial expressions, tone of voice, gestures, body position, movement, touch and gaze.
- It provides abundant information about others - It provides abundant information about others
@ -14,7 +14,7 @@
- **The visible channel** – facial expressions, eye contact, body movements, posture, and touching - **The visible channel** – facial expressions, eye contact, body movements, posture, and touching
- **Paralanguage** – voice pitch, loudness, rhythm, inflection, and hesitations to convey information - **Paralanguage** – voice pitch, loudness, rhythm, inflection, and hesitations to convey information
### Channels of nonverbal communication ### 2.1.1 Channels of nonverbal communication
#### Facial expression #### Facial expression
@ -75,7 +75,7 @@ Standing close is a sign of friendship or interest.
- The stronger the love, the more frequently the nonverbal cues showed (e.g. smiles, head nods, leaning towards one another) - The stronger the love, the more frequently the nonverbal cues showed (e.g. smiles, head nods, leaning towards one another)
- In short, inner feelings of love were reflected in the overt nonverbal actions under both positive and negative conditions - In short, inner feelings of love were reflected in the overt nonverbal actions under both positive and negative conditions
### Theories ### 2.1.2 Theories
#### Facial feedback hypothesis #### Facial feedback hypothesis
@ -109,7 +109,7 @@ How to detect? NONVERBAL LEAKAGE
Deception leads to negative social relations Deception leads to negative social relations
## Attribution ## 2.2 Attribution
**A description of the way in which people explain the causes of their own and other people’s behavior.** **A description of the way in which people explain the causes of their own and other people’s behavior.**
E.g. Why has a father just yelled at his daughter? E.g. Why has a father just yelled at his daughter?
@ -117,7 +117,7 @@ E.g. Why has a father just yelled at his daughter?
- **Internal attribution:** the inference that a person is behaving in a certain way because of something about the person, such as attitude, character, or personality (e.g. father is impatient) - **Internal attribution:** the inference that a person is behaving in a certain way because of something about the person, such as attitude, character, or personality (e.g. father is impatient)
- **External attribution:** the inference that a person is behaving a certain way because of something about the situation he or she is in, with the assumption that most people would respond the same way in that situation (e.g. his daughter has just stepped into the street without looking?) - **External attribution:** the inference that a person is behaving a certain way because of something about the situation he or she is in, with the assumption that most people would respond the same way in that situation (e.g. his daughter has just stepped into the street without looking?)
### Theories of Attribution ### 2.2.1 Theories of Attribution
#### Correspondent Inference Theory (Jones & Davis, 1965) #### Correspondent Inference Theory (Jones & Davis, 1965)
@ -152,7 +152,7 @@ External attribution: He is late because of traffic jam; He is late because of t
e.g. You do not scream when you see a cockroaches e.g. You do not scream when you see a cockroaches
You scream only when you see a snake, so the distinctiveness is high You scream only when you see a snake, so the distinctiveness is high
### Attribution : Sources of errors ### 2.2.2 Attribution : Sources of errors
#### Fundamental Attribution Error (Jones & Harris, 1967) #### Fundamental Attribution Error (Jones & Harris, 1967)
@ -185,7 +185,7 @@ We are well aware of the external/situational factors affecting us but less awar
E.g. We attain a good grade on the quiz because we are smart; We fail the quiz because Josephine is harsh E.g. We attain a good grade on the quiz because we are smart; We fail the quiz because Josephine is harsh
### Applications of attribution theory ### 2.2.3 Applications of attribution theory
**Attribution and Depression:** **Attribution and Depression:**
@ -196,21 +196,21 @@ E.g. We attain a good grade on the quiz because we are smart; We fail the quiz
- There are some therapies that help to change this attribution pattern, - There are some therapies that help to change this attribution pattern,
e.g. Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) e.g. Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)
## Impression formation ## 2.3 Impression formation
The process we form the impression of another person The process we form the impression of another person
- affects how we react to that person later - affects how we react to that person later
- carries a long-lasting and powerful effects on our perception - carries a long-lasting and powerful effects on our perception
### First impression ### 2.3.1 First impression
- Before, Social psychologists concluded that the first impression is formed very quickly but usually inaccurate - Before, Social psychologists concluded that the first impression is formed very quickly but usually inaccurate
- But recent research showed that even with ‘thin slices’ of information, the first impression formed is relatively *accurate* - But recent research showed that even with ‘thin slices’ of information, the first impression formed is relatively *accurate*
**Thin-slicing:** Drawing meaningful conclusions about another person’s personality or skills based on an extremely brief sample of behavior **Thin-slicing:** Drawing meaningful conclusions about another person’s personality or skills based on an extremely brief sample of behavior
- The formation of the first impression takes a few seconds (!!) - The formation of the first impression takes a few seconds (!!)
### Implicit Personality Theories ### 2.3.2 Implicit Personality Theories
- The beliefs about which characteristics would go together - The beliefs about which characteristics would go together
- When a person possesses some traits, he also possesses others as well - When a person possesses some traits, he also possesses others as well
@ -221,7 +221,7 @@ The process we form the impression of another person
Last born – most creative, emotional, disobedient Last born – most creative, emotional, disobedient
Only – most disagreeable, self-centred Only – most disagreeable, self-centred
### Impression management ### 2.3.3 Impression management
How can we produce/create a favorable first impression on other people? How can we produce/create a favorable first impression on other people?
**Tactics:** **Tactics:**

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PSYG2504 Social Psychology/03.md
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# 3. SOCIAL COGNITION # 3. Social Cognition
> PSYG 2504 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY > PSYG2504 Social Psychology
**Social cognition:** **Social cognition:**
@ -18,7 +18,7 @@
Thinking that is nonconscious, unintentional, involuntary, and effortless (Heuristics & Schemas). Thinking that is nonconscious, unintentional, involuntary, and effortless (Heuristics & Schemas).
Low-effort thinking (vs. High-effort thinking: thinking that is conscious, intentional, voluntary and effortful) Low-effort thinking (vs. High-effort thinking: thinking that is conscious, intentional, voluntary and effortful)
## Heuristics (mental shortcuts) ## 3.1 Heuristics (mental shortcuts)
*People use to make judgements quickly and efficiently.* *People use to make judgements quickly and efficiently.*
@ -33,7 +33,7 @@ We have too much information, Heuristics let us do more, with less effort.
- Anchoring and adjustment - Anchoring and adjustment
- Status quo - Status quo
### Representativeness heuristic ### 3.1.1 Representativeness heuristic
*A mental shortcut whereby people classify something according to how similar it is to a typical case.* *A mental shortcut whereby people classify something according to how similar it is to a typical case.*
@ -44,7 +44,7 @@ The judgments are often accurate because we follow the group norms in behavior a
- *Base rates* – the frequency with a given event/patterns occur in the total population - *Base rates* – the frequency with a given event/patterns occur in the total population
- *Discounting other important information* - *Discounting other important information*
### Availability heuristic ### 3.1.2 Availability heuristic
*A strategy to make judgments based on how *easily* specific kinds of information brought to our mind.* *A strategy to make judgments based on how *easily* specific kinds of information brought to our mind.*
The more easily recall something (something dramatic), the greater its impact on subsequent judgments or decisions. The more easily recall something (something dramatic), the greater its impact on subsequent judgments or decisions.
@ -56,18 +56,18 @@ Judgements about objects that we are personally familiar with (e.g. consumer bra
overestimate the probability of events that are dramatic but rare. overestimate the probability of events that are dramatic but rare.
E.g. car accidents vs flight accidents E.g. car accidents vs flight accidents
### Anchoring and adjustment ### 3.1.3 Anchoring and adjustment
*The tendency to use something we know (anchor) as a starting point to which we then make adjustments to deal with uncertainty.* *The tendency to use something we know (anchor) as a starting point to which we then make adjustments to deal with uncertainty.*
- We use particular standard as a starting point (anchor), then try to determine if we should guess higher or lower than the starting point (adjustment) (DeLamater & Myers, 2011) - We use particular standard as a starting point (anchor), then try to determine if we should guess higher or lower than the starting point (adjustment) (DeLamater & Myers, 2011)
- We use ‘self’ as the anchor - We use ‘self’ as the anchor
### Problem: Negative Bias ### 3.1.4 Problem: Negative Bias
*The fact that we show greater sensitivity and likely to remember the negative information than to positive information.* *The fact that we show greater sensitivity and likely to remember the negative information than to positive information.*
## Schemas ## 3.2 Schemas
*Mental structures people use to organize their knowledge about the social world around themes or subjects and that influence the information people notice, think about and remember.* *Mental structures people use to organize their knowledge about the social world around themes or subjects and that influence the information people notice, think about and remember.*
@ -75,7 +75,7 @@ E.g. car accidents vs flight accidents
- Help us organize and make sense of the world and to fill in the gaps of our knowledge. - Help us organize and make sense of the world and to fill in the gaps of our knowledge.
- Particularly useful in confusing or ambiguous situations. - Particularly useful in confusing or ambiguous situations.
#### Advantages of Schematic Processing ### 3.2.1 Advantages of Schematic Processing
Schemas aid and speed up information processing: Schemas aid and speed up information processing:
@ -85,7 +85,7 @@ Schemas aid and speed up information processing:
- Perceive and label the new information which is consistent or inconsistent with the schemas - Perceive and label the new information which is consistent or inconsistent with the schemas
- Reduce ambiguous elements in the situation - Reduce ambiguous elements in the situation
### Limitations of Schematic Processing ### 3.2.2 Limitations of Schematic Processing
People fill in gaps with information that does not belong but is schema-consistent. People fill in gaps with information that does not belong but is schema-consistent.
People may ignore information which does belong but is schema-inconsistent People may ignore information which does belong but is schema-inconsistent
@ -132,7 +132,7 @@ Men who believed they were talking to a more attractive woman behaved more warml
e.g. 20 years ago, we found it hard to believe a priest or a teacher would molest children. e.g. 20 years ago, we found it hard to believe a priest or a teacher would molest children.
It is very difficult to demolish a belief once we have established a rationale of the belief. It is very difficult to demolish a belief once we have established a rationale of the belief.
## Affect and cognition ## 4. Affect and cognition
*When we are in good mood, we tend to perceive everything in positive manner (people, the world, ideas…). * *When we are in good mood, we tend to perceive everything in positive manner (people, the world, ideas…). *
Mood congruence effects,Mood dependent memory. Mood congruence effects,Mood dependent memory.

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PSYG2504 Social Psychology/04.md
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*Our <u>evaluations</u> of any aspects of the social world (including people, objects and ideas).* *Our <u>evaluations</u> of any aspects of the social world (including people, objects and ideas).*
Feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond favorably or unfavorably to objects, people, and events Feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond favorably or unfavorably to objects, people, and events
## Attitudes ## 4.1 Attitudes
**Three components of attitude:** **Three components of attitude:**
### Affectively Based Attitude ### 4.1.1 Affectively Based Attitude
*An attitude based more on people’s feelings and values.* *An attitude based more on people’s feelings and values.*
Regarding the positive and negative feelings regarding the stimulus. Regarding the positive and negative feelings regarding the stimulus.
@ -17,14 +17,14 @@ People vote more with their hearts than their minds.
We feel strongly attracted to something (or a person), despite the negative belief about him/her (e.g. knowing that the person is a “bad influence”). We feel strongly attracted to something (or a person), despite the negative belief about him/her (e.g. knowing that the person is a “bad influence”).
### Behaviorally Based Attitude ### 4.1.2 Behaviorally Based Attitude
*An attitude based on observations of how one behaves toward an object.* *An attitude based on observations of how one behaves toward an object.*
Based on observations of how one behaviors toward an object. Based on observations of how one behaviors toward an object.
Do you like Apple products? If you use many Apple products, you may think you really like this brand. Do you like Apple products? If you use many Apple products, you may think you really like this brand.
### Cognitively Based Attitude ### 4.1.3 Cognitively Based Attitude
*An attitude based on people’s beliefs about the properties of an attitude object.* *An attitude based on people’s beliefs about the properties of an attitude object.*
@ -37,15 +37,15 @@ Implicit attitudes are rooted in people’s childhood experiences, while explici
Exist outside of conscious awareness Exist outside of conscious awareness
Test by Implicit Association Test (IAT) Test by Implicit Association Test (IAT)
### Attitudes influence Cognitions ### 4.1.4 Attitudes influence Cognitions
IAT: a test that measures the speed with which people can pair a target face (e.g. Black/White, old/young; Asian/White) with positive or negative stimuli (e.g. the words honest or evil) reflecting unconscious (implicit) prejudices. IAT: a test that measures the speed with which people can pair a target face (e.g. Black/White, old/young; Asian/White) with positive or negative stimuli (e.g. the words honest or evil) reflecting unconscious (implicit) prejudices.
People respond more quickly when white faces are paired with positive words and vice versa. People respond more quickly when white faces are paired with positive words and vice versa.
https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/education.html https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/education.html
## Attitudes formation ## 4.2 Attitudes formation
### Social learning ### 4.2.1 Social learning
*The process that we acquire new information, forms of behavior, or attitudes from other people.* *The process that we acquire new information, forms of behavior, or attitudes from other people.*
i.e. by interacting with others, or observing others’ behaviors (imitation) i.e. by interacting with others, or observing others’ behaviors (imitation)
@ -56,30 +56,30 @@ Social learning occurs in three processes:
- Instrumental/operant conditioning (rewards) - Instrumental/operant conditioning (rewards)
- Observational learning - Observational learning
### Classical conditioning ### 4.2.2 Classical conditioning
*A basic form of learning in which one stimulus, initially neutral, acquires the capacity to evoke reactions through repeated pairing with another stimulus.* *A basic form of learning in which one stimulus, initially neutral, acquires the capacity to evoke reactions through repeated pairing with another stimulus.*
### Instrumental/operant conditioning ### 4.2.3 Instrumental/operant conditioning
*A form of learning whereby a behavior followed by a positive response is more likely to be repeated.* *A form of learning whereby a behavior followed by a positive response is more likely to be repeated.*
E.g. Insko (1965) showed that participants’ responses to an attitude survey were influenced by positive feedback on the responses they gave a week earlier. E.g. Insko (1965) showed that participants’ responses to an attitude survey were influenced by positive feedback on the responses they gave a week earlier.
Reinforcing one’s attitudes with positive feedback means that the attitudes are more likely to survive and be expressed on other occasions. Reinforcing one’s attitudes with positive feedback means that the attitudes are more likely to survive and be expressed on other occasions.
### Observational learning ### 4.2.4 Observational learning
*A basic form of learning in which individuals acquire new forms of behavior as a result of observing others.* *A basic form of learning in which individuals acquire new forms of behavior as a result of observing others.*
## Attitudes predict deliberative behavior ## 4.3 Attitudes predict deliberative behavior
### Theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1991) ### 4.3.1 Theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1991)
Several factors, including subjective norms, attitudes towards the behavior and perceived behavioral control, determine behavioral intentions concerning the behavior, and, in turn, intentions strongly determine whether the behavior is performed. Several factors, including subjective norms, attitudes towards the behavior and perceived behavioral control, determine behavioral intentions concerning the behavior, and, in turn, intentions strongly determine whether the behavior is performed.
![Picture1.jpg](https://photo-1303301880.cos.ap-guangzhou.myqcloud.com/2024/05/11/663f827e3d12e.jpg) ![Picture1.jpg](https://photo-1303301880.cos.ap-guangzhou.myqcloud.com/2024/05/11/663f827e3d12e.jpg)
## Why does action/behaviour affect our attitude? ## 4.4 Why does action/behaviour affect our attitude?
### Cognitive dissonance ### 4.4.1 Cognitive dissonance
*The discomfort that is caused when two cognitions conflict, or when our behavior conflicts with our attitudes.* *The discomfort that is caused when two cognitions conflict, or when our behavior conflicts with our attitudes.*
Dissonance is most painful, and we are most motivated to reduce it, when one of the dissonant cognitions challenge our self-esteem (Aronson, 1969) Dissonance is most painful, and we are most motivated to reduce it, when one of the dissonant cognitions challenge our self-esteem (Aronson, 1969)
@ -142,7 +142,7 @@ Group 1: students merely composed the arguments
Group 2: after composing the arguments, the students were to recite them in front of a video camera and were told that the audience were high school students Group 2: after composing the arguments, the students were to recite them in front of a video camera and were told that the audience were high school students
Highest dissonance: Group 2 Highest dissonance: Group 2
### Self-perception theory (Bem, 1972) ### 4.4.2 Self-perception theory (Bem, 1972)
*When we are unsure of our attitudes, we infer our attitudes from our behavior and the circumstances in which this behavior occurs.* *When we are unsure of our attitudes, we infer our attitudes from our behavior and the circumstances in which this behavior occurs.*
e.g. You choose to eat oranges from a basket of seven kinds of fruit and somebody asks you how you feel about oranges. e.g. You choose to eat oranges from a basket of seven kinds of fruit and somebody asks you how you feel about oranges.

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PSYG2504 Social Psychology/05.md
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> PSYG2504 Social Psychology > PSYG2504 Social Psychology
## Stereotype, prejudice and discrimination ## 5.1 Stereotype, prejudice and discrimination
### Examples of Prejudice ### 5.1.1 Examples of Prejudice
- **Sex: Also known as sexism**. - **Sex: Also known as sexism**.
Women face discrimination in work settings, higher education and government (e.g. Fisher, 1992). Women face discrimination in work settings, higher education and government (e.g. Fisher, 1992).
@ -17,7 +17,7 @@
- **Physical attractiveness: Also known as appearance prejudice.** - **Physical attractiveness: Also known as appearance prejudice.**
Physically attractive people receive more lenient punishments (Mazzella & Feingold, 1994). Physically attractive people receive more lenient punishments (Mazzella & Feingold, 1994).
## Components of Group Antagonism ## 5.2 Components of Group Antagonism
- Stereotypes (cognitive) - Stereotypes (cognitive)
A belief about the personal attributes of a group of people A belief about the personal attributes of a group of people
@ -27,7 +27,7 @@
- Discrimination (behavioral) - Discrimination (behavioral)
Unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group or its members Unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group or its members
#### Stereotypes ### 5.2.1 Stereotypes
*A generalization about a group of people in which certain traits are assigned to virtually all members of the group, regardless of actual variation among the members.* *A generalization about a group of people in which certain traits are assigned to virtually all members of the group, regardless of actual variation among the members.*
@ -51,7 +51,7 @@
Information relevant to an activated stereotype is often processed more quickly, and remembered better, than information unrelated to it (Macrae et al., 1997). Information relevant to an activated stereotype is often processed more quickly, and remembered better, than information unrelated to it (Macrae et al., 1997).
Inconsistent information may be refuted or changed in subtle ways to make it consistent (Kunda & Oleson, 1995) Inconsistent information may be refuted or changed in subtle ways to make it consistent (Kunda & Oleson, 1995)
#### Prejudice ### 5.2.2 Prejudice
*The evaluation (usually negative) of a group or an individual based mainly on group membership.* *The evaluation (usually negative) of a group or an individual based mainly on group membership.*
@ -65,7 +65,7 @@ e.g. those who are prejudiced against gay people are likely to have a stereotype
We see only the information that confirms how right we are about “those people” and dismiss information that might require us to change our minds We see only the information that confirms how right we are about “those people” and dismiss information that might require us to change our minds
#### Discrimination ### 5.2.3 Discrimination
*Unjustified negative or harmful action toward a member of a group solely because of his/her membership in that group.* *Unjustified negative or harmful action toward a member of a group solely because of his/her membership in that group.*
Negative actions toward the objects of racial, ethnic, or religious prejudice have decreased somewhat in recent years in the US and many other countries. Negative actions toward the objects of racial, ethnic, or religious prejudice have decreased somewhat in recent years in the US and many other countries.
@ -73,7 +73,7 @@ Negative actions toward the objects of racial, ethnic, or religious prejudice ha
In fact, “old-fashioned” racism, for instance, is simply replaced by modern racism (more subtle) (Swim et al., 1995). In fact, “old-fashioned” racism, for instance, is simply replaced by modern racism (more subtle) (Swim et al., 1995).
Involves concealing prejudice from others in public settings, but expressed bigoted attitudes when it is safe to do so. Involves concealing prejudice from others in public settings, but expressed bigoted attitudes when it is safe to do so.
## The causes of prejudice ## 5.3 The causes of prejudice
Perceived threat to a valued group Perceived threat to a valued group
@ -81,7 +81,7 @@ Perceived threat to a valued group
- Realistic group conflict theory - Realistic group conflict theory
- Social identity theory – Feeling Superior to Others - Social identity theory – Feeling Superior to Others
### Intergroup competition ### 5.3.1 Intergroup competition
**Realistic group conflict theory:** **Realistic group conflict theory:**
*The idea that limited resources lead to conflict between groups and result in increased prejudice and discrimination (Jackson, 1993).* *The idea that limited resources lead to conflict between groups and result in increased prejudice and discrimination (Jackson, 1993).*
@ -90,7 +90,7 @@ Perceived threat to a valued group
- Competition intensifies conflict (Sherif, Harvey, White, Hood & Sherif, 1961). - Competition intensifies conflict (Sherif, Harvey, White, Hood & Sherif, 1961).
- The competition may finally develop into full scale, emotion-laden prejudice. - The competition may finally develop into full scale, emotion-laden prejudice.
### Social identity theory ### 5.3.2 Social identity theory
![Screenshot_20240511_233807.jpg](https://photo-1303301880.cos.ap-guangzhou.myqcloud.com/2024/05/11/663f90ed33358.jpg) ![Screenshot_20240511_233807.jpg](https://photo-1303301880.cos.ap-guangzhou.myqcloud.com/2024/05/11/663f90ed33358.jpg)
@ -120,7 +120,7 @@ The part of a person’s self-concept that is based on his/her identification wi
![Screenshot_20240511_233752.jpg](https://photo-1303301880.cos.ap-guangzhou.myqcloud.com/2024/05/11/663f90edb1561.jpg) ![Screenshot_20240511_233752.jpg](https://photo-1303301880.cos.ap-guangzhou.myqcloud.com/2024/05/11/663f90edb1561.jpg)
### Social learning ### 5.3.3 Social learning
*We acquire negative attitudes towards other social groups by hearing such views expressed by significant others.* *We acquire negative attitudes towards other social groups by hearing such views expressed by significant others.*
There are directly rewards for adopting the same views (e.g. love, approval). There are directly rewards for adopting the same views (e.g. love, approval).
@ -137,7 +137,7 @@ Our families and cultures pass on all kinds of information.* (e.g. finding mates
*Media coverage reflects and reinforces stereotypes.* *Media coverage reflects and reinforces stereotypes.*
e.g. Gilens (1999) found that the media presents an inaccurate picture of people on welfare, showing them as much more likely to be black and unemployed than is the case in reality e.g. Gilens (1999) found that the media presents an inaccurate picture of people on welfare, showing them as much more likely to be black and unemployed than is the case in reality
### Cognitive Bases of Prejudice ### 5.3.4 Cognitive Bases of Prejudice
Cognitive biases occur because we need to simplify a complex world. These biases can produce stereotypes and prejudice even in the absence of socialization or competition between groups. Cognitive biases occur because we need to simplify a complex world. These biases can produce stereotypes and prejudice even in the absence of socialization or competition between groups.
@ -148,15 +148,15 @@ Cognitive biases occur because we need to simplify a complex world. These biases
- Social norms provide a basis for categorization based on other attributes. - Social norms provide a basis for categorization based on other attributes.
e.g. social class e.g. social class
## Reducing prejudice ## 5.4 Reducing prejudice
### Socialization ### 5.4.1 Socialization
*Much change is happening spontaneously as target groups change and levels of education rise.* *Much change is happening spontaneously as target groups change and levels of education rise.*
More education people have, the less prejudiced they are likely to be (esp. for people with college degrees) (Schuman et al., 1997). More education people have, the less prejudiced they are likely to be (esp. for people with college degrees) (Schuman et al., 1997).
Simple media persuasion seems not effective (see Hovland, 1959) Simple media persuasion seems not effective (see Hovland, 1959)
### Intergroup contact ### 5.4.2 Intergroup contact
*Contact hypothesis: The view that social interactions between social groups would reduce prejudice.* *Contact hypothesis: The view that social interactions between social groups would reduce prejudice.*
@ -179,16 +179,16 @@ e.g. merely putting students of different groups together in a class does not wo
However, many efforts at intergroup contact do not meet the conditions. However, many efforts at intergroup contact do not meet the conditions.
Even in desegregated schools, children tend to associate more with their own race (Schofield, 1978) Even in desegregated schools, children tend to associate more with their own race (Schofield, 1978)
### Recategorization ### 5.4.3 Recategorization
*A shift in the boundary between the in-group (us) and some out-group (them).* *A shift in the boundary between the in-group (us) and some out-group (them).*
Gaertner et al. (1990) suggest helping people to experience working together cooperatively can induce people belonging to different groups to perceive each other as members of a single group. Gaertner et al. (1990) suggest helping people to experience working together cooperatively can induce people belonging to different groups to perceive each other as members of a single group.
e.g., your identity changes from Psychology major students in CIE to HKBU student. e.g., your identity changes from Psychology major students in CIE to HKBU student.
## The case of HK ## 5.5 The case of HK
### Minority Groups in HK ### 5.5.1 Minority Groups in HK
- Mentally retarded - Mentally retarded
Chronically ill patients Chronically ill patients
@ -199,7 +199,7 @@ e.g., your identity changes from Psychology major students in CIE to HKBU studen
- Indian/Pakistani/Filipino - Indian/Pakistani/Filipino
- Sex workers & HIV infected - Sex workers & HIV infected
### Work of EOC in Hong Kong ### 5.5.2 Work of EOC in Hong Kong
The Equal Opportunities Commission (EOC) is a statutory body set up in 1996 to implement the Sex Discrimination Ordinance (SDO) 《性別歧視條例》, the Disability Discrimination Ordinance (DDO) 《殘疾歧視條例》and the Family Status Discrimination Ordinance (FSDO) 《家庭崗位歧視條例》 The Equal Opportunities Commission (EOC) is a statutory body set up in 1996 to implement the Sex Discrimination Ordinance (SDO) 《性別歧視條例》, the Disability Discrimination Ordinance (DDO) 《殘疾歧視條例》and the Family Status Discrimination Ordinance (FSDO) 《家庭崗位歧視條例》

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PSYG2504 Social Psychology/12.md
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@ -2,12 +2,12 @@
> PSYG2504 Social Psychology > PSYG2504 Social Psychology
## Lian Vs. Mianzi ## 12.1 Lian Vs. Mianzi
Hu (1944) proposed that there are 2 basic categories of face in Chinese culture: Hu (1944) proposed that there are 2 basic categories of face in Chinese culture:
Lian (臉) and mianzi (面子). Lian (臉) and mianzi (面子).
### Lian ### 12.1.1 Lian
*An individual’s lian can be preserved by faithful compliance with ritual or social norms.* *An individual’s lian can be preserved by faithful compliance with ritual or social norms.*
@ -17,7 +17,7 @@ Both a social sanction for enforcing moral standards and an internalized sanctio
- Bu yao lian (‘doesn’t want face’; 不要臉) means that he or she is nasty, shameless, and immoral: A great insult to his or her moral character. - Bu yao lian (‘doesn’t want face’; 不要臉) means that he or she is nasty, shameless, and immoral: A great insult to his or her moral character.
- Diulian (shame; 丟臉) is a result of wrong-doing regardless of the presence of an audience. - Diulian (shame; 丟臉) is a result of wrong-doing regardless of the presence of an audience.
### Mianzi ### 12.1.2 Mianzi
*Mianzi stands for the kind of prestige that is emphasized in a particular place* *Mianzi stands for the kind of prestige that is emphasized in a particular place*
*Similar to the western face concept.* *Similar to the western face concept.*
@ -28,17 +28,17 @@ Similar to the western face concept: Chinese – with hierarchical structure of
- A reputation achieved through success, e.g. career or interpersonal relationship. - A reputation achieved through success, e.g. career or interpersonal relationship.
- Lian has no relationship with successFace behavior - Lian has no relationship with successFace behavior
### Enhancing one’s own face ## 12.2 Enhancing one’s own face
Knowing what kind of qualities are most appreciated by others in one’s social network, a person may deliberately do face-work to enhance one’s social or positional status by showing off these most appreciated qualities. Knowing what kind of qualities are most appreciated by others in one’s social network, a person may deliberately do face-work to enhance one’s social or positional status by showing off these most appreciated qualities.
### Enhancing others’ face ## 12.3 Enhancing others’ face
A person may adopt some tactics of ingratiation to enhance the resource allocators’s face so that the latter might reciprocate by allocating the resources in a way to benefits the ingratiator. A person may adopt some tactics of ingratiation to enhance the resource allocators’s face so that the latter might reciprocate by allocating the resources in a way to benefits the ingratiator.
Tactics include presenting compliments of sufficient credibility, conforming with his/her opinions and behavior, giving gifts or doing other pleasant and rewarding things for others Tactics include presenting compliments of sufficient credibility, conforming with his/her opinions and behavior, giving gifts or doing other pleasant and rewarding things for others
### Losing one’s own face ## 12.4 Losing one’s own face
The losing of face may bring serious consequences for an individual, especially when he/she loses the so-called ‘moral face’. The losing of face may bring serious consequences for an individual, especially when he/she loses the so-called ‘moral face’.
@ -46,14 +46,16 @@ The losing of face may bring serious consequences for an individual, especially
Losing face for someone or some group with whom he/she is closely connected Losing face for someone or some group with whom he/she is closely connected
### Hurting others’ face ## 12.5 Hurting others’ face
When a man wants to ask for a favor from a resource allocator of some prestige, he first assesses his position relative to the allocator and the likelihood that he may be successful. When a man wants to ask for a favor from a resource allocator of some prestige, he first assesses his position relative to the allocator and the likelihood that he may be successful.
If the request is accepted, then the allocator ‘gave him mianzi’ and his face is increased. If the request is accepted, then the allocator ‘gave him mianzi’ and his face is increased.
If the request is rejected, the allocator does not give him ‘mianzi’, which then reflects badly on his own mianzi and blame the allocator, especially when the allocator occupies a lower social status. If the request is rejected, the allocator does not give him ‘mianzi’, which then reflects badly on his own mianzi and blame the allocator, especially when the allocator occupies a lower social status.
### Saving one’s own face ## 12.6 Saving one’s own face
Losing face may cause embarrassment, shame or shyness Losing face may cause embarrassment, shame or shyness
Possible reactions: Possible reactions:
@ -62,7 +64,8 @@ Possible reactions:
- Retaliatory actions: express dissatisfaction in a subtle and indirect way - Retaliatory actions: express dissatisfaction in a subtle and indirect way
- Self-defensive reactions: devalue the opponent, deemphasize the seriousness of the face-losing event and pretend nothing happened - Self-defensive reactions: devalue the opponent, deemphasize the seriousness of the face-losing event and pretend nothing happened
### Saving others’ face ## 12.7 Saving others’ face
Bond and Lee (1978) studied the face-saving behavior of 100 CUHK students. Bond and Lee (1978) studied the face-saving behavior of 100 CUHK students.
> Participants were told the study was about public speaking. > Participants were told the study was about public speaking.