Fixed problem of itemlization

PSYG2500 Abnormal Psychology/2a.md

@@ -53,11 +53,13 @@ Heredity is important predisposing contributory cause for number of disorders.
 ##### Methods for Studying Genetic Influences
 
 **Traditional methods:** 
+
 - Family history method
 - Twin method
 - Adoption method
 
 **More recent methods:**
+
 - Linkage analysis 
 - Association studies
 
@@ -74,11 +76,13 @@ The Developmental Systems Approach
 #### Neuro-transmitter & hormonal abnormalities in brain and CNS
 
 **Neurotransmitter imbalances:**
+
 - Can result in abnormal behavior
 - Created in various ways: overproduction, deactivation, abnormally 
 sensitive or insensitive
 
 **5 Most studied neurotransmitter:**
+
 - Norepinephrine
 - Dopamine
 - Serotonin
@@ -86,7 +90,9 @@ sensitive or insensitive
 - Gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA)
 
 **Hormonal Imbalances**
+
 Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis:
+
 - Messages (CRH) travel from the hypothalamus to the pituitary
 - Pituitary releases ACTH, which stimulates cortical part of the adrenal gland, produces epinephrine (adrenaline) and cortisol
 - Cortisol provides negative feedback to hypothalamus and pituitary to decrease their release of CRH and ACTH, which in turn reduces the release of adrenaline and cortisol
@@ -94,10 +100,12 @@ Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis:
 #### Temperament
 
 **Temperament:**  
+
 Child’s reactivity and characteristic ways of self-regulation.
 Early temperament is basis from which personality develops.
 
 **Five Dimensions of Temperament:**  
+
 - Fearfulness
 - Irritability and frustration
 - Positive affect
@@ -109,11 +117,13 @@ Early temperament is basis from which personality develops.
 #### Psychodynamic
 
 **Freud** theorized that a person’s behavior results from interaction of:
+
 - Id (pleasure principle)
 - Ego (reality principle)
 - Superego (executive branch)
 
 **Newer Psychodynamic Perspectives:**
+
 - Ego psychology
 - Attachment theory
 - Object-relations theory
@@ -133,6 +143,7 @@ Early temperament is basis from which personality develops.
 - **Attributional style:** Characteristic  way in which  individual may  tend to assign  causes to bad or  good events
 
 **Cognitive Therapy:**
+
 - The way we interpret events and  experiences determines our emotional  reactions to them.
 - Clinicians use a variety of techniques  designed to alter a client’s  negative  cognitive biases.
 
@@ -157,10 +168,12 @@ Parents who have various forms of psychopathology tend to have one or more child
 #### Marital discord & divorce
 
 **Long-standing marital discord:** 
+
 - Aggressive behavior
 - Poor quality relationships
 
 **Divorce:**
+
 - Insecurity, rejection
 - Delinquency
 - Lower educational attainment
@@ -168,6 +181,7 @@ Parents who have various forms of psychopathology tend to have one or more child
 #### Low Socioeconomic Status and Unemployment
 
 In our society, the lower the socioeconomic class, the higher the incidence of mental and physical disorders.
+
 - Children and adolescents from lower socioeconomic status (SES) families tend to have more psychological problems.
 - Studies have repeatedly found unemployment to be associated with enhanced vulnerability to psychopathology.
 
@@ -180,28 +194,36 @@ In our society, the lower the socioeconomic class, the higher the incidence of m
 #### Prejudice and Discrimination in Race, Gender, and Ethnicity
 
 Increased prevalence of certain mental disorders may be related to:
+
 - Prejudice against minority groups and women 
 - Perceived discrimination and self-esteem
 
 ### The Cultural Perspective
 
-**Cultural context of behavior:**
+**Cultural context of behavior:**  
+
 - Universal and Culture-Specific Symptoms of Disorders
 - Culture: Over-and Undercontrolled Behavior
 
 #### Universal and Culture-Specific Symptoms of Disorders
 
-**Universality of some disorders:**
+**Universality of some disorders:**  
+
 - Certain psychological symptoms are consistently found among similarly diagnosed clinical groups
-**Sociocultural factors:**
+
+**Sociocultural factors:**  
+
 - Which disorders develop
 - Prevalence, course 
 
 #### Culture: Over- and Undercontrolled Problem
 
-**Undercontrolled problem:**
--Agression, disobedience, disrespect
--Exhibited by American
-**Overcontrolled problem:**
--Shyness, anxiety, depression
--Exhibited by Thai
+**Undercontrolled problem:**  
+
+- Agression, disobedience, disrespect
+- Exhibited by American
+
+**Overcontrolled problem:**  
+
+- Shyness, anxiety, depression
+- Exhibited by Thai