Fixed problem of itemlization
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@ -53,11 +53,13 @@ Heredity is important predisposing contributory cause for number of disorders.
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##### Methods for Studying Genetic Influences
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**Traditional methods:**
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- Family history method
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- Twin method
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- Adoption method
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**More recent methods:**
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- Linkage analysis
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- Association studies
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@ -74,11 +76,13 @@ The Developmental Systems Approach
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#### Neuro-transmitter & hormonal abnormalities in brain and CNS
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**Neurotransmitter imbalances:**
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- Can result in abnormal behavior
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- Created in various ways: overproduction, deactivation, abnormally
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sensitive or insensitive
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**5 Most studied neurotransmitter:**
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- Norepinephrine
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- Dopamine
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- Serotonin
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@ -86,7 +90,9 @@ sensitive or insensitive
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- Gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA)
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**Hormonal Imbalances**
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Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis:
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- Messages (CRH) travel from the hypothalamus to the pituitary
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- Pituitary releases ACTH, which stimulates cortical part of the adrenal gland, produces epinephrine (adrenaline) and cortisol
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- Cortisol provides negative feedback to hypothalamus and pituitary to decrease their release of CRH and ACTH, which in turn reduces the release of adrenaline and cortisol
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@ -94,10 +100,12 @@ Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis:
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#### Temperament
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**Temperament:**
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Child’s reactivity and characteristic ways of self-regulation.
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Early temperament is basis from which personality develops.
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**Five Dimensions of Temperament:**
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- Fearfulness
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- Irritability and frustration
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- Positive affect
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@ -109,11 +117,13 @@ Early temperament is basis from which personality develops.
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#### Psychodynamic
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**Freud** theorized that a person’s behavior results from interaction of:
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- Id (pleasure principle)
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- Ego (reality principle)
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- Superego (executive branch)
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**Newer Psychodynamic Perspectives:**
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- Ego psychology
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- Attachment theory
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- Object-relations theory
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@ -133,6 +143,7 @@ Early temperament is basis from which personality develops.
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- **Attributional style:** Characteristic way in which individual may tend to assign causes to bad or good events
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**Cognitive Therapy:**
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- The way we interpret events and experiences determines our emotional reactions to them.
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- Clinicians use a variety of techniques designed to alter a client’s negative cognitive biases.
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@ -157,10 +168,12 @@ Parents who have various forms of psychopathology tend to have one or more child
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#### Marital discord & divorce
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**Long-standing marital discord:**
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- Aggressive behavior
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- Poor quality relationships
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**Divorce:**
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- Insecurity, rejection
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- Delinquency
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- Lower educational attainment
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@ -168,6 +181,7 @@ Parents who have various forms of psychopathology tend to have one or more child
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#### Low Socioeconomic Status and Unemployment
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In our society, the lower the socioeconomic class, the higher the incidence of mental and physical disorders.
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- Children and adolescents from lower socioeconomic status (SES) families tend to have more psychological problems.
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- Studies have repeatedly found unemployment to be associated with enhanced vulnerability to psychopathology.
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@ -180,28 +194,36 @@ In our society, the lower the socioeconomic class, the higher the incidence of m
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#### Prejudice and Discrimination in Race, Gender, and Ethnicity
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Increased prevalence of certain mental disorders may be related to:
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- Prejudice against minority groups and women
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- Perceived discrimination and self-esteem
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### The Cultural Perspective
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**Cultural context of behavior:**
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- Universal and Culture-Specific Symptoms of Disorders
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- Culture: Over-and Undercontrolled Behavior
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#### Universal and Culture-Specific Symptoms of Disorders
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**Universality of some disorders:**
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- Certain psychological symptoms are consistently found among similarly diagnosed clinical groups
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**Sociocultural factors:**
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- Which disorders develop
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- Prevalence, course
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#### Culture: Over- and Undercontrolled Problem
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**Undercontrolled problem:**
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-Agression, disobedience, disrespect
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-Exhibited by American
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- Agression, disobedience, disrespect
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- Exhibited by American
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**Overcontrolled problem:**
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-Shyness, anxiety, depression
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-Exhibited by Thai
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- Shyness, anxiety, depression
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- Exhibited by Thai
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